ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE: CRITICAL CONCEPTS
Historical Contexts of Current Directions
Edited by Ronald Chrisley
Editorial Assistant:  Sander Begeer
Numbers in braces indicate number of pages in each section
(Total number of pages:  1854)
 
                   Preface
                   General Introduction:  "The Concept of Artificial Intelligence"
1         HISTORICAL CONTEXT (456)
         Introduction:  "The Development of the Concept of Artificial Intelligence:  Historical Overviews and Milestones"
1.1      Overview  (128)
1.2      Focus (323)

2         APPROACHES (790)

2.1      SYMBOLIC AI (345)
            Introduction:  "Intelligence as Symbol Processing"
2.1.1   Foundational Texts (151)
2.1.2   Developments  (191)

2.2       SUBSYMBOLIC AND CONNECTIONIST AI (192)
            Introduction:  "The Emergence of Connectionism"
2.2.1    Historical Contexts (94)
2.2.2    Developments (96)

2.3       SITUATED, DYNAMIC AND EVOLUTIONARY AI (260)
            Introduction:  "Intelligence as a Way of Life"
2.3.1   Situated AI (99)
            Historical Context (10)
            Developments (89)
2.3.2   Dynamical AI (63)
            Historical Context (20)
            Developments (43)
2.3.3   Evolutionary AI (49)
            Historical Context (20)
            Developments (29)

3          CRITIQUES AND STUMBLING BLOCKS (218)
          Introduction:  "Critiques of Artificial Reason"
3.1       Diagonalization  and the Limits of Formality (22)
3.2       Phenomenology (97)
3.3       The Lighthill Report (29)
3.4       The Frame Problem (34)

4         CONCEPTUAL ISSUES (183)
            Introduction:  "What is AI?  What Is A?  What is I?"
4.1      Characterizations of Artificial Intelligence (80)  (80)
4.2      The Nature of the Artificial (27)
4.3      Intelligence and the Turing Test (74)

5          BROADER  CONTEXT (197)
            Introduction:  "The Concept of Artificial Intelligence in a Wider Perspective"
5.1       Artificial  Mentality (48)
5.2      Ethics (28)
5.3      Social Issues (119)

 
 

 

VOLUME I (466)
 

Preface
General Introduction:  "The Concept of Artificial Intelligence" by Ronald Chrisley
 
1       HISTORICAL CONTEXT (456)

Introduction:  "The Development of the Concept of Artificial Intelligence:  Historical Overviews and Milestones" by Ronald Chrisley

1.1     Overview  (128)
 
[1] Newell, A. 1983 Intellectual Issues in the History of Artificial Intelligence.  In: Machlup, F. and Mansfield, U. (1983) The Study
of Information - Interdisciplinary Messages Pp. 187-227 (40 pages)

[2] Gardner. H. (1985) Artificial Intelligence: The Expert Tool. In: Gardner, H. (1985) The Mind's New Science Pp. 138-181. (44 pages)

[3] Glymour, C., Ford, K.M., and Hayes, P.J., (1995) The Prehistory of Android Epistemology. Ford, K.M., Glymour C. and Hayes, P.J.
(Eds.) (1995) Android Epistemology Pp. 3-21 (18 pages)

[4] Mazlish, B. (1995) The Man-Machine and Artificial Intelligence. In: The Stanford Electronic Humanities Review, Volume 4,
Issue 2: Constructions of the Mind Pp. 21-46  (26 pages)
 

1.2     Focus (323)

[5] Cohen, J. (1965) Theory of Robots in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. In: Cohen, J, (1965) Human Robots in Myth and
Antiquity Pp. 68-80 (23 pages)

[6] Descartes, R. (1637) Discourse on Method, part 5. In: Cottingham, J., Stoothoff, R. and Murdoch, D.  (trans.) (1985) The Philosophical Writings of  Descartes Pp. 131-141 (11 pages)

[7] Hobbes, T.  (1651)   Leviathan, chapter 5  'Reason and Science', Plamenatz, J. (1962) (Ed.)  Leviathan  Pp. 81-87 (7 pages)

[8] Leibniz, G.  (1677) Preface to the General Science. In:  Wiener, P. (1951) (Ed.) Leibniz Selections  Pp. 15-18  (4 pages)

[9] Leibniz, G. (1714) The Monadology. In: Cahn, S.M. (Ed.) (1977) Classics of Western Philosophy (3rd. edition) Pp. 604-613 (10 pages)

[11] Fryer, D.M. and Marshall, J.C. (1979)  The Motives of Jacques de Vaucanson. In: Technology and Culture 20 Pp. 257-269 (13 pages)

[10] La Mettrie, J. O. de  (1747) Man a Machine. In: La Mettrie, J. O. de  (1747) Man a Machine Pp. 83-151 (35 fullsize pages)

[84] Lovelace, A.  (1842) Translation notes A and G (excerpts) for Menabrea, L.F. (1942) Sketch of the Analytical Engine Invented by
Charles Babbage. Taylor, R. (Ed.) (1843),  (33 pages)

[13] Mazlish, B. (1993) Babbage, Huxley and Butler. In: Mazlish, B. (1993) The Fourth Discontinuity Pp. 130-155 (26 pages)

[14] Simons, G. (1988) Towards Electronic Computers. In: Evolution of the Intelligent Machines Pp. 53-63 (11 pages)

[15] Cordeschi, R. (1991) The Discovery of the Artificial. Some Protocybernetic Developments 1930-1940. In: AI & Society (1991) 5 Pp. 218-238 Springer-Verlag London Limited (21 pages)

[16] Ross, T. (1935) Machines That Think- A Further Statement. In: Psychological Review, Vol. XLII, 1935 Pp. 387-393 (6 pages)

[17] Ross T. (1937) The Synthesis of Intelligence- Its implications. In: Psychological Review, Vol.  XLIV, 1937 Pp. 185-189 (4 pages)

[18] Edwards, P.N. (1996) The Machine in the Middle: Cybernetic Psychology and World War II. In: Edwards, P. (1996) The Closed World  Pp. 174-207 (34 pages)

[20] Rosenblueth, A., Wiener, N. and Bigelow, J. (1943) Behavior, Purpose and Teleology. In: Philosophy of Science, 10 (1943) Pp. 18-24 (7 pages)

[19] McCulloch, W.S.  and Pitts, W.H.  (1943) A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity. In: McCulloch, W. S. (1965) Embodiments of Mind. Pp. 19-40

[25] Von Neumann, J. (1951) The General and Logical Theory of Automata. In: Jeffress, L.A. (1951) (Ed.) Cerebral Mechanisms in Behavior, The Hixon
Symposium Hafner Publishing Company, New York (42 pages)

[21] Heims, S.J. (1991) Describing "Embodiments of Mind": McCulloch and His Cohorts. In: Constructing a Social Science for Post War America: The Cybernetics Group 1946-1953 Pp. 31-52 (22 pages)

[22] McCorduck, P. (1979) Robotics and General Intelligence. In: McCorduck, P. (1979) Machines Who Think: A Personal  Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence, San Francisco : W. H. Freeman, c1979 Pp. 209-239 (30 pages)

[23] Crevier, D.(1993) The Tree of Knowledge. In: Crevier, D. (1993) AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence Pp. 145-163 New York: Basic Books of Harper Collins Publishers (18 pages)
 

VOLUME II (537)
 

2        APPROACHES (790)
 

2.1      SYMBOLIC AI (345)

Introduction:  "Intelligence as Symbol Processing" by Ronald Chrisley
 

2.1.1   Foundational Texts (151)
 
[24] Turing, A,M. (1950) Computing Machinery and Intelligence. In: Mind LIX no. 236 (Oct.1950) Pp. 433--60 (27 pages)

[26] McCarthy, J., Minsky, M.L., Rochester, I.B.M. and Shannon, C.E. (1955) A Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence (11 pages) 

[27] McCarthy, J. (1958) Programs with Common Sense (with  discussion). In: Proceedings of the Symposium on the Mechanization of Thought Processes, National Physical Laboratory,1  Pp. 75-93 (7 pages)

[28] Newell, A., Shaw, J.C. and Simon, H. (1959) Report on a General Problem-Solving Program. In: Proceedings of the International
Conference on Information Processing, 1960 256-264. [UNESCO House, Paris, France, June 13-23, 1959.] (8 pages)

[29] Miller, G.A.. Galanter, E. and Pribram, K.H. (1960) The Simulation of Psychological Processes. In: Miller, G.A., Galanter, E. and Pribram, K.H. (1960) Plans and the Structure of Behaviour (16 pages)

[30] Minsky, M. (1963) Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence. In: Proceedings of the  IRE, 49, 1, Jan, 1961, Pp. 8-30. (44 fullsize pages)
 

2.1.2   Developments  (191)
 
[31] Newell, A. and Simon, H. (1976) Computer Science as Empirical Inquiry: Symbols and Search,  The Tenth Turing Lecture. In: Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery 19. (28 pages)

[32] Bobrow, D.G. and Hayes, P.J. (Eds.) (1985) Artificial Intelligence-Where are We? In: Artificial Intelligence, 25, 1985 Elsevier Science Publishers BV. (40 pages)

[33] Minsky, M. (1985) Excerpts from  The Society of Mind.  In: Winston,  P.H.,  and Shellard, S.A  (Eds.) (1990), Artificial Intelligence at MIT, Expanding Frontiers Vol 1,  Pp. 244-269 (25 pages)

[34] McCarthy, J. (1988) Mathematical Logic in Artificial Intelligence. In: Daedalus:  Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Winter 1988, Volume 117, No. 1., Pp. 297-311 (15 pages) 

[35] Rosenbloom, P.S.,  Laird, J. E., Newell, A. and McCarl, R. (1991) A Preliminary Analysis of the Soar Architecture as as Basis for General Intelligence. In: Artificial Intelligence. 47 (1991) Pp. 289-325 (46 pages)

[36] Lenat,  D.  and Feigenbaum, E.  (1991) On the Thresholds of Knowledge. In: Artificial Intelligence (47)1-3 (1991) pp. 185-250
 

2.2     SUBSYMBOLIC AND CONNECTIONIST AI (192)

Introduction:  "The Emergence of Connectionism"

2.2.1   Historical Contexts (94)
 
[37] Aizawa, K. (1992) Connectionism and Artificial Intelligence: History and Philosophical Interpretation. In: Journal of Experimental & Theoretical
Artificial Intelligence, Vol. 4, 1992 (18 pages)

[38] Copeland, B.J.  and Proudfoot, D. (1996) On Alan Turing's Anticipation of Connectionism. In: Synthese 108, Pp. 361-377, (16 pages)

[39] Rosenblatt, F. (1958) The Perceptron: A Probabilistic Model for Information Storage and Organization in the Brain. In:  Psychological Review, Vol. 65, No. 6, Pp. 386-408.

[40] Selfridge, O.G. (1959) Pandemonium: a Paradigm for Learning. In:  Mechanization of Thought Processes, 1959, Pp. 511-31. (21 pages)

[41] Boden, M. (1991) Horses of a Different Color? In: Ramsey, Stich and Rumelhart (1991) Philosophy and Connectionist Theory, Pp. 3-20 (18 pages)
 

2.2.2   Developments (96)
 
[42] Hofstadter, D.R. (1983) Waking Up from the Boolean Dream, or, Subcognition as Computation, plus post scriptum. In: Hofstader, D. (1985) Metamagical Themas: Questing for the  Essence of Mind and Pattern Pp. 631-665  (34 pages)

[43] Waltz, D.L. (1988) The Prospects for Building Truly Intelligent Machines. In: Daedalus:  Journal of the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, Vol. 117, No.1 (22 pages)

[44] Smolensky, P. (1990) Connectionism and the Foundations of AI. In: Partridge, D. The Foundations of Artificial Intelligence Pp. 306-327 (22 pages)

[45] Minsky, M. (1990) Logical vs. Analogical or Symbolic vs. Connectionist or Neat vs. Scruffy. In:  Winston,  P.H.,  and Shellard, S.A  (Eds.)  (1990), Artificial Intelligence at MIT, Expanding Frontiers, Vol 1, MIT Press. Pp. 218-244 (27 pages)
 

VOLUME III (478)

Introduction:  "Intelligence as a Way of Life" by Ronald Chrisley

2.3     SITUATED, DYNAMIC AND EVOLUTIONARY AI (260)

[46] Dennett, D.C. (1978) Why not the Whole Iguana? In: Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 1, Pp. 103-104. (2 pages)

[47] Steels, L. (1996) The Artificial Life Roots of Artificial Intelligence. In: Langton, C.G. (1996) Artificial Life, An Overview (36 pages)
 

2.3.1   Situated AI (99)

Historical Context (10)
 
[48] Bateson, G. (1971) The Cybernetics of "Self" [excerpt from "The Cybernetics of "Self":
A Theory of Alcoholism"].  In: Psychiatry, Vol. 34, No. 1 (1971) Pp. 1-18, Reprinted in:
Bateson, G. (1972) Steps to an Ecology of Mind. Intertext Books, London. (10  pages)

[From the document enclosed, only include pages 313 to 320, stating with the section entitled
"Epistemology & Ontology" and stopping before the section "Alcoholic 'Pride'".
Do not include final paragraph starting with "We shall proceed..."]

Developments (89)
 
[49] Smith, B. C. (1991) The Owl and the Electric Encyclopedia. In: Artificial Intelligence 47 (1991) 251-288 (38 pages)

[50] Brooks, R. A., Intelligence Without Reason, MIT AI Lab Memo 1293, April 1991, Reprinted in Proceedings of 12th Int. Joint Conf. on Artificial Intelligence, Sydney, Australia, August 1991, Pp. 569-595 (27 pages)

[51] Kirsh D. (1988) Today the Earwig,  Tomorrow Man? In: Artificial Intelligence (47)1-3 (1991) Pp. 161-184 (24 pages)
 

2.3.2   Dynamical AI (63)

Historical Context (20)
 
[52] Ashby, W. R. (1956) Design for an Intelligence-Amplifier. In:
Shannon, C.E. and McCarthy, J. (Eds.) (1956) Automata Studies.
Princeton University Press, New Jersey (20 pages)
Permission letter/email sent, no answer yet
 

Developments (43)

[53] Beer, R.,  (1995) A Dynamical Systems Perspective on Agent-Environment Interaction,
Artificial Intelligence 72(1-2), Pp. 173-215. (43 pages) Elsevier Science
Permission letter/email sent, no answer yet
 

2.3.3   Evolutionary AI (49)

 Historical Context (20)
 
[54] Fogel, L.J., Owens, A.J. and Walsh, M. J. (1966) Introduction. In: Fogel, L.J., Owens, A.J. and Walsh, M. J. (1966) Artificial Intelligence
though Simulated Evolution.  John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York (10 pages)

Developments (29)
 
[55] Husbands, P., Harvey, I. Cliff, D. and Miller, G. (1997) Artificial Evolution: A New Path for Artificial Intelligence? In: Brain and Cognition 34, Pp. 130-159
(29 pages)
 

3           CRITIQUES AND STUMBLING BLOCKS (218)

 Introduction:  "Critiques of Artificial Reason" by Ronald Chrisley

[56] Weizenbaum, J.  (1976)  Artificial Intelligence. In: Weizenbaum, J.  (1976) Computer Power and Human Reasoning:  From Judgment to Calculation.
Pp. 202-228  (26 pages)

[57] Pagels, H. (1984) Panel Discussion: Has Artificial Intelligence Research Illuminated Human Thinking? Pagels, H. (1984) Computer
Culture:  The Scientific, Intellectual and Social Impact of the Computer. New York Academy of Sciences, New York (23 pages)
 

3.1 Diagonalization  and the Limits of Formality (22)
 

[58] Lucas, J.R. (1996) Minds, Machines and Gödel: A Retrospect. In: Millican, P.J.R. and Clark, A. (1996) Machines and Thought:  The Legacy of Alan Turing. Pp. 103-124. (22 pages)
 

3.2 Phenomenology (97)

[59] Dreyfus, H (1965) Alchemy and Artificial Intelligence.  Rand Organization (30 pages)

[60] Winograd, T. (1990) Thinking machines: Can there be? Are we? Partridge D. & Wilks Y.(Eds.) The Foundations of Artificial
Intelligence: A Sourcebook.  Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (23 pages)

[61] Dreyfus, H. (1992) Introduction to the MIT Press Edition. In:  Dreyfus, H. (1992) What Computers Still Can't Do. Pp. 1-67 (44 pages)

3.3 The Lighthill Report (29)

[64] Lighthill, J. (1972) Artificial Intelligence, A General Survey. In:  Artificial Intelligence:  A Paper Symposium. Science Research Council (22 pages)

[65] McCarthy, J.,  (1974) Review of ``Artificial Intelligence: A General Survey'' by Professor Sir James Lighthill. Artificial Intelligence, Vol. 5, No. 3. pp. 317-322  (7 pages)
 

3.4 The Frame Problem (34)

[62] Dennett, D. (1984) Cognitive Wheels: The Frame Problem of AI. In: Hookway, C. (Ed.) Minds, Machines & Evolution:  Philosophical Studies.  Pp.  129-151 (23 pages) Cambridge University Press

[63] Fodor, J. (1987) Modules, Frames, Fridgeons, Sleeping Dogs, and the Music of the Spheres. In: Pylyshyn, Z. W.  (Ed.) (1987) The Robot's Dilemma: The Frame Problem in Artificial Intelligence  Pp. 139-149 (11 pages) Norwood NJ: Ablex, 1987
 
 

VOLUME IV (380)
 

4      CONCEPTUAL ISSUES (183)

Introduction:  "What is AI?  What Is A?  What is I?" by Ronald Chrisley

4.1    Characterizations of Artificial Intelligence (80)  (80)

[66] Haugeland, J. (1985) Introduction. In: Artificial Intelligence: The Very Idea. Pp. 2-12 (11 pages)

[67] Schank, R.C. (1990) What is AI Anyway? Partridge, D. and Wilks, Y. (Eds.)(1990) The Foundations of Artificial Intelligence:  A Sourcebook. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge (11 pages)

[68] Suchman, L.A. and Trigg, R.H. (1997) Artificial Intelligence as Craftwork. In: Chaiklin, S. and Lave, J. (1993) (Eds.) Understanding Practice: Perspectives on
Activity and Context. Pp. 144-178 (35 pages)

[69] Agre, P. (1997) The Soul Gained and Lost: Artificial Intelligence as a Philosophical Project. In: Daedalus:  Journal of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Winter 1988, Volume 117, No. 1., Pp. 1-21 (21 pages)

4.2     The Nature of the Artificial (27)

[73] Simon, H.  (1969) Understanding the Natural and the Artificial World. In: Simon, H.  (1969) Sciences of the Artificial. Pp. 1-24 (24 pages)

4.3     Intelligence and the Turing Test (74)

[70] Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T. J., Jr., Boykin, A. W., Brody, N., Ceci, S. J., Halpern, D. F., Loehlin,  J. C., Perloff, R.,  Sternberg, R. J., & Urbina, S. (1996).
Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns. American Psychologist, 51, Pp. 77-101. (25 pages)

[71] Block, N. 1981. Psychologism and Behaviorism. Philosophical Review 90: Pp. 5-43. (39 pages)

[72] Whitby, B. (1996) The Turing Test: AI's Biggest blind alley? In: Millican, P.  & Clark, A. (Eds.)) Machines and Thought:  The Legacy of Alan Turing. Oxford University Press. Pp. 53-62 (10 pages)
 

5       BROADER  CONTEXT (197)

Introduction:  "The Concept of Artificial Intelligence in a Wider Perspective"  by Sander Begeer
 

5.1     Artificial  Mentality (48)

[74] Bechtel, W. (1994)  Consciousness: Perspectives from Symbolic and Connectionist AI.  In: Neuropsychologia, 33, Pp. 1075-1086. (12 pages)

[75] Wright, I.P, Sloman, A, & Beaudoin L.P, Towards a Design-Based Analysis of Emotional Episodes (with commentaries). In Philosophy Psychiatry and Psychology Vol 3, No 2, 1996, Pp. 101-126, (26 pages)

[76] Margaret A. Boden (1998) Creativity and Artificial Intelligence. In: Artificial Intelligence Vol. 103 (1-2) Pp. 347-356. (10 pages)
 

5.2     Ethics (28)
 
[77] Torrance, S. (1986) Ethics, Mind and Artifice. In: Gill, K.S. (Ed.) (1986) Artificial Intelligence for Society. Pp. 55-72 (18 pages)

[78] LaChat, M.R. (1986) Artificial Intelligence and Ethics: An Exercise in the Moral Imagination. In: The AI Magazine (1986) Vol. 7 No. 2 Pp. 70-79. (10 pages) 
 

5.3     Social Issues (119)
 
[79] Armer, P. (1962) Attitudes Toward Intelligent Machines. In:  Armer, P. (1962) Attitudes Toward Intelligent Machines. In: The RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, Cal. 1962 (26 pages)

[80] Laufer, R. (1992) The Social Acceptability of AI Systems: Legitimacy, Epistemology and Marketing. In: AI and Society (1992) 6. Pp. 197-220. (23 pages)

[81] Woolgar, S. (1985) Why not a Sociology of Machines? In: The Case of Sociology and Artificial Intelligence Sociology, Vol. 19, No. 4 Pp. 557-572 (15 pages)

[82] Adam, A. (1998) The Knowing Subject in AI. In: Adam, A. (1998) Artificial Knowing, Gender and the Thinking Machine. Routledge, London. (30 pages)

[83] Bolter, J.D.,  (1984) Artificial Intelligence. In:   Bolter, J.D.,  (1984) Turing's  Man: Western Culture in the Computer Age.  Pp. 189-213 (25 pages)